LANGUAGE STRUCTURE

1- ALPHABET AND LETTERS

Letters: a character representing one or more of the sounds used in speech; any of the symbols of an alphabet:

Alphabet: A group of full letters

Vowels: Letters that make sounds that are made without closing your mouth

2- WORDS

A word is something that describes something/someone

A syllable is a unit of a word

There are 7 types of words:

Nouns: Words that describe a thing/person (Man, lamp, etc...)

Verbs: Words that describe an action (Play, eat, etc....)

Pronouns: Words that replace nouns to avoid repetition and make sentences clearer. They can refer to the speaker, the person being addressed, or others in a sentence.

Adjectives: Words that describe nouns (Happy, sad, etc...)

Prepositions: Words that describe the relationship of a noun with another (on, in, at, etc...)

Conjunctions: Words that connect a sentence (and, but, however, etc...)

Determiners: Words are words that come before nouns and specify something about their quantity, definiteness, or ownership. … (a, the, some, etc...)

Adverbs: Words that describe verbs (happily, carefully, etc...)

TYPES OF NOUNS:

Common general name city

Proper specific name London

Concrete physically experienced table

Abstract idea/quality/emotion happiness

Countable can be counted book/books

Uncountable treated as a mass/concept water

Collective group team

Compound multiple words forming one noun toothbrush

Possessive shows possession/association John's

Singular one cat

Plural more than one cats

Agent person/thing performing action teacher

Material substance/material gold

Gerund -ing form functioning as noun swimming

TYPES OF ADJECTIVES:

Type Function Examples

Descriptive describes quality big, beautiful

Qualitative describes quality intelligent, kind

Quantitative describes amount much, little, enough

Numeral indicates number/order three, first

Cardinal indicates exact number one, two, ten

Ordinal indicates order first, second

Multiplicative indicates number of times double, triple

Demonstrative points out this, that, these, those

Possessive shows possession/relationship my, your, their

Interrogative asks about a noun which, what, whose

Distributive refers to individual members each, every, either

Indefinite indicates nonspecific reference some, many, several

Proper derived from a proper noun American, French

Participial derived from a participle boring, bored

Compound consists of multiple words well-known, five-year-old

Coordinate independent multiple adjectives cold, rainy

Cumulative adjectives build a description beautiful old house

Attributive comes before a noun red car

Predicative comes after a linking verb car is red

Postpositive comes after a noun someone special

Gradable admits degrees big, happy

Absolute generally non-gradable unique, dead

Comparative compares two things bigger, more beautiful

Superlative compares three or more biggest, most beautiful

Relational indicates relationship/category medical, political

Classifying places a noun in a category wooden, digital

Emphasizing adds emphasis own, sheer, utter

Exclamatory expresses strong emotion what a beautiful...

Negative expresses absence/negative quality unhappy, useless

There are predicate adjectives and attribute adjectives:

Predicate adjectives: A sentence that is about the adjective

Attribute adjectives: A sentence that is about the adjective but is not the topic

TYPES OF VERBS:

Action verb action run I run every morning.

Stative verb state know I know the answer.

Dynamic verb activity/process run She is running outside.

Transitive takes direct object eat food I eat food every day.

Intransitive no direct object sleep The baby slept peacefully.

Ditransitive takes two objects give him a book I gave him a book.

Linking/Copular links subject/complement be, seem She is happy.

Auxiliary helps another verb be, have, do She is reading.

Modal ability, possibility, necessity, etc. can, must You must study.

Semi-modal modal-like construction have to I have to work.

Regular normal past formation walked I walked home.

Irregular irregular past formation went She went home.

Finite carries tense/agreement works She works here.

Non-finite no independent tense to work I want to work.

Infinitive to + verb / bare form to go I want to go.

Gerund -ing functioning as noun swimming Swimming is fun.

Participle verb form used in constructions/adjectivally running, eaten She is running.

Phrasal verb + particle give up He gave up smoking.

Prepositional verb + preposition look at She looked at me.

Phrasal-prepositional verb + particle + preposition put up with I can't put up with the noise.

Reflexive action directed back to subject hurt oneself He hurt himself.

Reciprocal action between participants help each other They helped each other.

Causative causes another action make, have, get She made me laugh.

Perception sensory experience see, hear I saw him run.

Reporting reports speech/thought say, tell He told me the truth.

Communication communicates speak, ask She asked a question.

Movement movement go, arrive They arrived late.

Cognition mental activity think, know I think about it.

Emotion feelings love, hate I love music.

Possession possession have, own She owns a car.

Inchoative beginning/change of state become He became angry.

Ergative/labile transitive/intransitive alternation open, break John opened the door. / The door opened.

Impersonal non-referential subject rain It is raining.

Active subject performs action ate The boy ate the apple.

Passive subject receives action was eaten The apple was eaten by the boy.

TYPES OF PRONOUNS:

Personal refers to specific people/things I, you, he

Subject subject of verb I, she, they

Object object of verb/preposition me, him, them

Reflexive refers back to subject myself, herself

Intensive emphasizes myself, himself

Reciprocal mutual action each other

Possessive possession mine, yours

Demonstrative points out this, those

Interrogative asks questions who, what

Relative introduces relative clause who, which, that

Indefinite nonspecific reference someone, anything

Distributive individual members each, either

Universal all members everyone, everything

Negative absence nobody, nothing

Quantifying quantity many, few

Partitive part of whole most, some

Dummy/Expletive grammatical placeholder it, there

Impersonal people in general one, generic you

Generic class/general people one, you, they

Relative-Interrogative relative or question use who, which

Archaic older English forms thou, thee, thy

TYPES OF CONJUNCTIONS:

Coordinating joins equal grammatical elements and, but, or, nor, for, so, yet

Subordinating introduces a dependent clause because, although, if, when, while

Correlative works in pairs either...or, neither...nor

Conjunctive connects ideas between clauses/sentences however, therefore, moreover

Additive adds information and, also, furthermore

Adversative shows contrast but, yet, although, whereas

Causal shows cause/reason because, since, as

Resultative shows result/consequence so, therefore, so...that

Conditional expresses a condition if, unless, provided that

Concessive expresses contrast despite a condition although, though, even though

Temporal expresses time when, while, before, after

Comparative expresses comparison than, as...as

Purpose expresses purpose so that, in order that

Manner expresses how something happens as, as if, as though

Place expresses location where, wherever

Alternative expresses alternatives or, either...or

Negative expresses negative alternatives nor, neither...nor

Explanatory introduces an explanation for, because, since

TYPES OF PREPOSITIONS:

Simple expresses a basic relationship in, on, at, by, for

Double combines two prepositions into, onto, upon

Compound formed from multiple elements inside, outside, within

Phrase / Complex consists of multiple words because of, in front of, according to

Prepositional phrase preposition + object in the house, on the table

Time indicates time at, on, in, before, after

Place indicates location in, on, at, under

Direction indicates movement/direction to, toward, into, through

Movement indicates movement across, along, over, through

Position indicates physical position above, below, beside

Distance indicates distance near, from, beyond

Agent indicates performer of an action by

Instrument indicates tool/method with, by

Means indicates means/method by, via, through

Manner indicates how something happens with, like, by

Cause indicates cause because of, from, due to

Reason indicates reason because of, on account of

Purpose indicates purpose for, for the sake of

Possession indicates possession/relationship of, with

Source indicates origin/source from, out of

Material indicates material of, from

Comparison compares things like, unlike, than

Contrast indicates opposition despite, in spite of, unlike

Exception indicates exclusion except, except for, but

Addition adds something besides, in addition to

Reference indicates what something concerns about, regarding, concerning

Topic indicates subject matter about, on, regarding

Relation indicates relationship to, with, between

Dependency indicates dependence on, upon

Accompaniment indicates being together with, without

Rate indicates rate/proportion per, at

Measure indicates quantity/measurement by, per

Standard indicates a standard/basis according to, by

Condition indicates a condition in case of, subject to

Concession indicates contrast despite something despite, notwithstanding

Similarity indicates similarity like, as

Ownership indicates ownership of, with

Agentive indicates the agent in a passive clause by

ALL TYPES OF DETERMINERS:

Articles indicate definiteness/indefiniteness a, an, the

Demonstrative points out a noun this, that, these, those

Possessive shows possession/relationship my, your, his, her, its, our, their

Interrogative asks about a noun which, what, whose

Relative identifies/restricts a noun in a relative construction whose, which, what

Distributive refers to members individually each, every, either, neither

Cardinal numeral indicates exact number one, two, three

Ordinal numeral indicates order/position first, second, third

Multiplicative indicates number of times double, triple, twice

Quantifier indicates quantity/amount some, any, much, many, few

Partitive indicates part of a whole some, most, all, half

Universal refers to an entire group all, every, each

Negative indicates absence/zero quantity no, neither

Indefinite nonspecific reference some, any, certain, various

Emphatic emphasizes the noun such, what, quite a

Exclamative expresses strong emotion what, such

Comparative indicates comparison/degree more, less, fewer

Superlative indicates highest/lowest degree most, least

Predeterminer occurs before another determiner all, both, half

Postdeterminer occurs after a central determiner many, few, several

Central determiner core determiner position a, the, this, my, some

Numeral determiner specifies number/order two, first

Specific identifies a particular referent the, this, my

Nonspecific does not identify a particular referent a, some, anyway

ALL TYPES OF ADVERBS:

Adverb of manner describes how something happens quickly, slowly, carefully

Adverb of place indicates where here, there, everywhere

Adverb of time indicates when now, yesterday, soon

Adverb of frequency indicates how often always, often, never

Adverb of duration indicates how long briefly, temporarily, forever

Adverb of degree indicates intensity/degree very, extremely, quite

Adverb of quantity indicates amount much, little, enough

Adverb of certainty indicates certainty certainly, definitely, probably

Adverb of probability indicates likelihood perhaps, maybe, possibly

Adverb of affirmation indicates agreement/affirmation yes, certainly, indeed

Adverb of negation indicates negation not, never, nowhere

Adverb of result indicates result/consequence therefore, consequently

Adverb of reason indicates reason/cause therefore, hence, thus

Adverb of purpose indicates purpose deliberately, intentionally

Adverb of condition indicates condition otherwise, alternatively

Adverb of concession indicates contrast despite something nevertheless, nonetheless

Adverb of comparison compares things similarly, likewise

Adverb of similarity indicates similarity likewise, similarly

Adverb of contrast indicates opposition however, instead

Adverb of addition adds information also, too, additionally

Adverb of exclusion excludes/limits only, merely, solely

Focusing adverb focuses attention only, even, especially

Intensifier strengthens meaning very, really, extremely

Downtoner weakens meaning somewhat, rather, fairly

Sentence adverb comments on whole sentence fortunately, honestly

Conjunctive adverb connects ideas between clauses however, therefore, moreover

Interrogative adverb asks a question when, where, why, how

Relative adverb introduces a relative clause when, where, why

Demonstrative adverb points to place/time/manner here, there, thus

Adverbial of viewpoint establishes perspective politically, financially

Adverbial of domain specifies area/topic linguistically, medically

Adverbial of evaluation expresses judgment fortunately, sadly

Adverbial of source indicates source of information reportedly, allegedly

Adverbial of style indicates how information is presented frankly, technically

Adverbial of circumstance describes circumstances together, alone, separately

VERB TENSES:

1 Present Simple S + V¹ habits, repeated actions, facts, general truths, permanent situations I work every day.

2 Present Continuous S + am/is/are + V-ing action happening now, temporary action, current situation, arranged future I am working now.

3 Present Perfect S + have/has + V³ past action connected to the present, experience, recently completed action, situation continuing to now I have worked here for five years.

4 Present Perfect Continuous S + have/has been + V-ing action that started in the past and continues now, or has recently stopped with a present result; emphasizes duration/activity I have been working for five hours.

5 Past Simple S + V² completed action/event in the past, past habit, sequence of past events I worked yesterday.

6 Past Continuous S + was/were + V-ing action in progress at a particular past time, background action, interrupted action, simultaneous past action I was working when he called.

7 Past Perfect S + had + V³ action completed before another past action/event I had worked there before I moved.

8 Past Perfect Continuous S + had been + V-ing action continuing for a period before another past event; emphasizes duration I had been working for five hours when he called.

9 Future Simple S + will + V¹ predictions, promises, offers, spontaneous decisions, future facts I will work tomorrow.

10 Future Continuous S + will be + V-ing action that will be in progress at a particular future time I will be working at 8 p.m.

11 Future Perfect S + will have + V³ action that will be completed before a particular future time/event I will have worked for eight hours by 5 p.m.

12 Future Perfect Continuous S + will have been + V-ing action that will have continued for a duration up to a future time; emphasizes duration By June, I will have been working here for five years.

13 Be Going To S + am/is/are + going to + V¹ future intention/plan or prediction based on present evidence I am going to work tomorrow.

14 Future in the Past S + would + V¹ future event viewed from a past point; reported future, past prediction, intention I knew I would work there.

15 Future Continuous in the Past S + would be + V-ing action that would be in progress at a particular future time viewed from the past I knew I would be working at 8 p.m.

16 Future Perfect in the Past S + would have + V³ action that would be completed before a future point viewed from the past I knew I would have finished by Friday.

17 Future Perfect Continuous in the Past S + would have been + V-ing action that would have continued for a duration up to a future point viewed from the past I knew I would have been working there for five years by June.

IMPERATIVES:

An imperative is a word to tell someone what to do

Affirmative V¹ Open the door. command

Negative don't + V¹ Don't open the door. prohibition

Emphatic do + V¹ Do listen. strong emphasis

Polite please + V¹ Please wait. polite request

Let's let's + V¹ Let's go. suggestion

Negative let's let's not + V¹ Let's not argue. negative suggestion

Let me let me + V¹ Let me help. offer/request

Let him/her/them let + object + V¹ Let him go. permission/instruction

Passive be + V³ Be prepared. passive instruction

Instruction V¹ Press the button. instruction

Advice V¹ Take a break. advice

Warning V¹ / don't + V¹ Don't touch it! warning

Invitation V¹ Come in! invitation

Encouragement V¹ / do + V¹ Keep going! encouragement

PASSIVE TENSES:

A passive voice is a sentence that focuses on the thing rather than the person doing it

Present Simple am/is/are + V³ The car is repaired.

Present Continuous am/is/are being + V³ The car is being repaired.

Present Perfect have/has been + V³ The car has been repaired.

Past Simple was/were + V³ The car was repaired.

Past Continuous was/were being + V³ The car was being repaired.

Past Perfect had been + V³ The car had been repaired.

Future Simple will be + V³ The car will be repaired.

Future Perfect will have been + V³ The car will have been repaired.

3- IF CONDITIONAL

If conditional: What happens at the time of something happening

Zero Conditional general truth, fact, rule present simple present simple If you heat ice, it melts.

First Conditional real/possible future present simple will + V¹ If I study, I will pass.

Second Conditional hypothetical/unlikely present or future past simple would + V¹ If I studied, I would pass.

Third Conditional hypothetical past; impossible to change past perfect would have + V³ If I had studied, I would have passed.

Mixed Conditional 1 past condition → present result past perfect would + V¹ If I had studied, I would know the answer.

Mixed Conditional 2 present condition → past result past simple would have + V³ If I were more careful, I would not have made that mistake.

WOULD: past form of will:

would + V¹ hypothetical/polite/future-in-past I would go.

would be + adjective hypothetical state I would be happy.

would be + V-ing hypothetical continuous action I would be working.

would have + V³ hypothetical past I would have gone.

would have been + adjective hypothetical past state I would have been happy.

would have been + V-ing hypothetical past continuous I would have been working.

would like + noun polite desire I would like coffee.

would like + to V¹ polite desire/action I would like to go

would rather + V¹ preference I would rather stay.

IF CONDITIONAL WORDS:

if on the condition that If you come, I'll go.

unless if not Unless you hurry, you'll be late.

provided if / provided that You can go provided you finish.

provided that if I'll help provided that you try.

providing if I'll go providing you come.

providing that if You can stay providing that you're quiet.

as long as if / provided that Stay as long as you're comfortable.

so long as if / provided that You can go so long as you're careful.

on condition that if a condition is satisfied I'll agree on condition that you help.

in case because something might happen Take an umbrella in case it rains.

in the event that if something happens Call me in the event that he arrives.

assuming that supposing that Assuming that you're right, what next?

supposing imagine if Supposing you won, what would you do?

supposing that imagine if Supposing that he came, what would happen?

even if regardless of condition Even if I lose, I'll try.

only if if and only under this condition I'll go only if you come.

whether if one possibility or another I don't know whether he'll come.

whether or not regardless of condition I'll go whether or not you come.

otherwise if not Hurry, otherwise we'll be late.

or else if not Hurry, or else we'll be late.

4- COMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVE

Comparative: What is winning by how big the number is

Superlative: What is winning TO ALL by how big the number is

Positive adjective tall basic degree

-er comparative adj + er taller higher degree, 2

More comparative more + adj more beautiful higher degree, 2

Less comparative less + adj less expensive lower degree, 2

Equality as + adj + as as tall as equal degree

Negative equality not as + adj + as not as tall as unequal degree

-est superlative adj + est tallest highest degree, 3+

Most superlative most + adj most beautiful highest degree, 3+

Least superlative least + adj least expensive lowest degree

Irregular special form good → better → best irregular comparison

Progressive comparative comparative + and + comparative bigger and bigger increasing degree

Double comparative the + comparative..., the + comparative the more, the better linked changes

Ratio comparative twice/three times as...as twice as big as proportional comparison

Numerical comparative more/fewer/less more books quantity comparison

Numerical superlative most/fewest/least most books highest/lowest quantity

Absolute superlative extremely/absolutely + adj absolutely amazing extreme degree

Superlative group one of the + superlative one of the best member of highest group

Comparative intensifier much/far/slightly + comparative much better emphasizes comparison

Superlative intensifier by far/easily + superlative by far the best emphasizes highest degree

5- RELATIVE CLAUSES

A relative clause is a clause that gives more information about a noun or pronoun.

Defining / Restrictive identifies exactly which person/thing The man who lives here is my uncle.

Non-defining / Non-restrictive adds extra information John, who lives here, is my uncle.

Reduced relative clause shortened relative clause The man living here is my uncle.

Free relative clause relative clause without an explicit antecedent What you said is true.

Fused relative clause relative word itself functions as noun + relative marker Whoever comes can enter.

who people, subject The man who called me...

whom people, object The man whom I called...

whose possession The man whose car broke down...

which things/animals The book which I bought...

that people/things, defining The book that I bought...

where place The house where I live...

when time The day when we met...

why reason The reason why he left...

what the thing(s) that What I need...

whatever anything that Whatever you choose...

whoever anyone who Whoever comes...

whichever any one that Whichever you choose...

wherever any place that Wherever you go...

whenever any time that Whenever you come...

however in whatever way However you do it...

6- REPORTED SPEECH AND DIRECT SPEECH

Direct speech reproduces the speaker's actual words.

Reported speech describes what someone said.

When the reporting verb is in the past, English commonly shifts the tense backward.

Direct Speech Reported Speech Example

Present Simple Past Simple "I work." → He said he worked.

Present Continuous Past Continuous "I am working." → He said he was working.

Present Perfect Past Perfect "I have worked." → He said he had worked.

Present Perfect Continuous Past Perfect Continuous "I have been working." → He said he had been working.

Past Simple Past Perfect "I worked." → He said he had worked.

Past Continuous Past Perfect Continuous "I was working." → He said he had been working.

Past Perfect Past Perfect "I had worked." → He said he had worked.

Past Perfect Continuous Past Perfect Continuous "I had been working." → He said he had been working.

will would "I will work." → He said he would work.

can could "I can swim." → He said he could swim.

may might "I may go." → He said he might go.

shall should/would "I shall return." → He said he would return.

must had to "I must leave." → He said he had to leave.

I am happy that he left

I am happy he left

Direct speech Reported speech

"I work." He said he worked.

"I am working." He said he was working.

"I have worked." He said he had worked.

"I worked." He said he had worked.

"I was working." He said he had been working.

"I will work." He said he would work.

"I can work." He said he could work.

"I may work." He said he might work.

"I must work." He said he had to work.

"I am tired." He said he was tired.

"Do you work?" He asked if I worked.

"Where do you work?" He asked where I worked.

"Work!" He told me to work.

"Don't work!" He told me not to work.

"Please help me." He asked me to help him.

"Let's go." He suggested going.

7- INFINITVES AND VERBAL NOUNS

Infinitive: An infinitive is the basic form of a verb, usually with to.

Gerund: A verb that functions as a noun

To-infinitive to + V¹ to eat basic infinitive

Bare infinitive V¹ eat infinitive without to

Gerund V-ing eating verb functioning as a noun

Infinitive as subject to + V¹ To swim is healthy. activity/idea as subject

Gerund as subject V-ing Swimming is healthy. activity as subject

Infinitive as object V + to V¹ I want to leave. follows certain verbs

Gerund as object V + V-ing I enjoy reading. follows certain verbs

Infinitive of purpose to + V¹ I went to study. purpose

Adjective + infinitive adj. + to V¹ happy to help describes reason/reaction

Noun + infinitive noun + to V¹ a book to read modifies noun

Preposition + gerund prep. + V-ing good at cooking gerund after preposition

Verb + object + infinitive V + O + to V¹ I want him to go. object performs action

Verb + object + bare infinitive V + O + V¹ She made him go. certain verbs

Perfect gerund having + V³ having finished earlier gerund action

Passive gerund being + V³ being seen passive action

Perfect passive gerund having been + V³ having been seen earlier passive action

Continuous infinitive to be + V-ing to be working action in progress

Perfect infinitive to have + V³ to have finished earlier action

Perfect continuous infinitive to have been + V-ing to have been working earlier ongoing action

Passive infinitive to be + V³ to be seen passive action

Perfect passive infinitive to have been + V³ to have been seen earlier passive action

Reduced relative clause V-ing / V³ the man standing there shortened relative clause

8- TAG QUESTIONS

A tag question is a short question added to the end of a statement. It is usually used to check information, seek agreement, or confirm something.

Present be She is happy, isn't she?

Past be She was happy, wasn't she?

Present simple She works here, doesn't she?

Past simple She worked here, didn't she?

Present continuous She is working, isn't she?

Past continuous She was working, wasn't she?

Present perfect She has worked, hasn't she?

Past perfect She had worked, hadn't she?

Future will She will work, won't she?

Would She would work, wouldn't she?

Can She can work, can't she?

Could She could work, couldn't she?

Should She should work, shouldn't she?

Must She must work, mustn't she?

Have to She has to work, doesn't she?

Used to She used to work, didn't she?

There is There is a problem, isn't there?

There are There are problems, aren't there?

Let's Let's go, shall we?

Imperative Open the door, will you?

Negative imperative Don't go, will you?

NEGATIVE QUESTIONS:

A negative question is a question containing a negative form such as not, n't, don't, isn't, haven't, can't, etc.

asking whether something is not true

expressing surprise

expecting or suggesting an answer

making a suggestion

showing disappointment or annoyance

asking for confirmation

Auxiliary Positive Question Negative Question

do Do you work? Don't you work?

does Does he work? Doesn't he work?

did Did he work? Didn't he work?

am Am I late? Aren't I late?

is Is she coming? Isn't she coming?

are Are they coming? Aren't they coming?

was Was he sleeping? Wasn't he sleeping?

were Were they sleeping? Weren't they sleeping?

have Have you finished? Haven't you finished?

has Has she finished? Hasn't she finished?

had Had they left? Hadn't they left?

will Will he come? Won't he come?

would Would she help? Wouldn't she help?

can Can he swim? Can't he swim?

could Could she come? Couldn't she come?

should Should we go? Shouldn't we go?

must Must he leave? Mustn't he leave?

9- SUBJUNCTIVE

The subjunctive is a verb mood used for things that are not presented as ordinary facts—especially wishes, recommendations, demands, hypothetical situations, necessity, and unreal conditions.

Present subjunctive that + V¹ demand/recommendation I insist that he go.

Negative subjunctive that + not + V¹ negative demand I insist that he not go.

Be subjunctive that + be necessity/recommendation It is vital that he be here.

Passive subjunctive that + be + V³ required passive action They demand that it be finished.

Perfect subjunctive that + have + V³ earlier required action It is essential that he have finished.

Were-subjunctive were unreal/hypothetical If I were rich...

Wish + were wish + were unreal present I wish I were taller.

Wish + past perfect wish + had + V³ unreal past I wish I had studied.

If + past perfect if + had + V³ past counterfactual If I had known...

As if/as though as if + past form unreal comparison He acts as if he were king.

Lest lest + V¹ prevention He left lest he be late.

Formulaic fixed forms wishes/formulas Long live the King!

It's time it's time + past desired action now It's time we left.

10- MODAL WORDS

Modal words express things such as ability, possibility, probability, permission, obligation, necessity, advice, willingness, intention, and prediction.

Core modals can, could, may, might, must, shall, should, will, would

Marginal modals ought, need, dare, used to

Necessity must, have to, have got to, need to

Obligation must, should, ought to, have to, be required to, be obliged to

Ability can, could, be able to, manage to

Possibility can, could, may, might, be possible to

Probability must, should, ought to, may, might, be likely to

Impossibility can't, couldn't, be impossible to

Permission can, could, may, be allowed to, be permitted to

Prohibition mustn't, can't, may not, be forbidden to, be prohibited from

Advice should, ought to, could, had better, might want to

Suggestion could, shall, should, why not, might want to

Request can, could, will, would, may

Offer shall, will, can, could

Willingness will, would, be willing to, be prepared to

Refusal won't, wouldn't, be unwilling to

Prediction will, shall, be going to, be likely to

Intention will, be going to, be planning to, be intending to

Future arrangement be due to, be scheduled to, be set to

Immediate future be about to

Past habit used to, would

Conditional would, could, might

Past counterfactual would have, could have, might have

Deduction must, can't, couldn't, may, might

Modal adverbs certainly, definitely, probably, possibly, perhaps, maybe, surely

Modal adjectives possible, probable, certain, necessary, likely, unlikely, required

Modal nouns possibility, probability, certainty, necessity, obligation, permission, ability

can ability, possibility, permission I can swim.

could past ability, possibility, polite request Could you help?

may possibility, permission It may rain.

might weaker possibility It might rain.

must necessity, obligation, deduction You must leave.

shall suggestion, offer, formal future/requirement Shall we go?

should advice, expectation, obligation You should study.

will future, prediction, willingness I will help.

would conditional, politeness, past habit I would help.

11- THERE IS

Present There is a book. There are books.

Past There was a book. There were books.

Present perfect There has been a book. There have been books.

Past perfect There had been a book. There had been books.

Future There will be a book. There will be books.

Going to There is going to be a book. There are going to be books.

Modal can There can be a book. There can be books.

Modal could There could be a book. There could be books.

Modal may There may be a book. There may be books.

Modal might There might be a book. There might be books.

Modal must There must be a book. There must be books.

Modal should There should be a book. There should be books.

Modal perfect There may have been a book. There may have been books.

12- HAVE

Possession have + noun I have a car.

Relationship have + noun She has two brothers.

Experience have + noun We had a good time.

Food/drink have + meal I had breakfast.

Activity have + noun We had a meeting.

Necessity have to + V¹ I have to go.

Perfect auxiliary have + V³ I have eaten.

Perfect continuous have + been + V-ing I have been working.

Perfect passive have + been + V³ It has been done.

Causative have + person + V¹ I had him fix it.

Causative passive have + object + V³ I had it fixed.

Modal perfect modal + have + V³ He must have left.

Have got have got + noun I have got a car.

Main verb past possession I had a car.

Main verb past experience We had fun.

Main verb past activity/meal I had breakfast.

Past perfect auxiliary earlier past action I had eaten.

Past perfect continuous ongoing earlier past action I had been working.

Causative arranged an action I had my car repaired.

Causative caused/asked someone to act I had him fix it.

Have to → past past necessity I had to leave.

Modal perfect hypothetical/deduction He could have left.